Notes on Judges and I Samuel

Many critics see the books of Joshua through 2 Kings as part of a single long history--though some see Joshua as more connected instead with the first five books of the Bible. The first group speak of a "Deuteronomistic Historym" because it often seems to judge the cultic practices of earlier periods by the standards of Deuteronymy. The core of that book is identified with the "long-lost" book of the law discovered in the temple at Jerusalem in the reigh of King Josiah (2 Kings 22-23) because the reforms which Josiah is said to have carried out seem to be those prescribed in Deuteronymy. The history provides historical and theological justifications for Josiah's reforms--and for his territorial ambitions--and its picture of David and Solomon may have been influenced by the desire to flatter Josiah. One common view is that the first edition of this history was put together in the time of Josiah, with a second edition coming after his failure, the destruction of the temple, and the exile to Babylonia.

It is unlikely, though, that even a first Deuteronomistic edition was the first attempt to put these stories in order. Some claim to be able to distinguish in these books the same sources found in the Pentateuch. In addition, some of the stories of Samuel, Saul, and David may go back to a prophetic source thoroughly hostile to the monarchy, in which the role of the prophet is exalted and embodied in the figure of Samuel.

JUDGES
1.1-3.6: Introduction. The first task of the Deuteronymistic historian in this book is to reconcile the successes described in the Conquest tales collected in Joshua with the situation of Israel between then and the time of Saul, as described in the tales collected here. The weeping in 2.1-5 connects this place with Bethel (see 21.2) and may come from a source hostile to the shrine there.
3.7-3.31: Some Early Judges. Of the three discussed in the rest of chapter 3--Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar--only Ehud's treacherous assasination of the King of Moab stands out as an anecdote worth recalling. Ehud was a Benjamite hero; these "judges" do not really rally all Israel.
4.1-5.31: Deborah. In these stories, Barak is the military leader, but the prophetess Deborah is the judge. Even Barak's victory in 4 is cemented by the actions of another woman, the Kenite Jael, who kills the opposing commander Sisera with a tent peg while pretending to give him shelter in his flight.
6.1-8.35: Gideon and the Midianities. There seems to be no consensus on the meaning of the test Gideon uses to pick the 300 men with whom he will attack the Midianites (7.5-7. The people of Ephraim are upset (8.1-3) because Gideon, from the less important tribe of Manessah, has upstaged them. Gideon turns down the kingship--perhaps because he was a good guy (8.22-23), perhaps because having an oracle business was more profitable.
9.1-57: A Temporary Kingship. It's been suggested that Abimelech was originally considered a judge but was switched to a king because his wickedness was stressed--this is the very center of this book, and it is a bit negative about both kingship and Shechem. For killing his other brothers, Abimelech is rightly cursed by Jotham. Jotham's "parable of the trees" is an anti-monarchical parable. Like Sisera, Abimelech is killed by a woman--this one drops a millstone on his head.
10.1-18: Two minor judges and more oppression. It's been suggested that some of the minor judges, like Tola and Jair here, were put in just to make the total come to 12. This also applies to Ibzon, Elon, and Abdon in 12.8-15.
11.1-12.7: Jephthah. The son of a prostitute, Jephthah gains success at the head of a mercenary army (or band of bandits). His wars are not only with the Ammonites but with the Ephaimites, a tribe of Israel, whose inability to pronounce the word "shibboleth" in the same way as the Gileadites led to their being slaughtered. He is also known for the vow which leads him to sacrifice his daughter.
13.1-16.31: Samson. Other judges are described as divinely sent saviors who deliver their people. Samson's quarrel with the Philistines seem particularly personal. Though he has been dedicated to God since birth, his taste for non_Israelite women is not really acceptable, and it brings him bad luck.
17-21: How the Tribe of Dan Found New Land and That of Benjamin is Almost Eliminated. Alternative title: Why Israel Needed a King to Keep Order. These are very old stories, from the time of the judges, though without any heroic figures. The origin of the idols at Dan is stolen money (17.1-6) and the center itself was conquered by murdering a village of peaceful and unarmed people (18.27). The Gibeahites are as repulsive as the inhabitants of Sodom, though the tribe of Benjamin shows bravery in the following battles. The Israelites solution to the problem of repopulating Benjamin is another massacre, this time of Jabesh-Gilead, followed by authorized rape of the daughters of Shiloh. (21.8-23).
I SAMUEL
1.1-7.17: Samuel and the Ark. The oldest set of stories here concern the ark of the covenant, particularly its loss and recovery. Around these have been woven various tales of prophets and priests, attached to the figure of Samuel and presenting him as an ideal prophet.
- Samuel as Judge. Samuel is one of the most prominent figures in the history, but his historicity itself remains uncertain. The tales of his miraculous birth and Nazirite rearing seem derivative and would lead us to expect a figure more along the line of earlier deliverers of Israel, a task he performs only in the battle in chapter 7, which may itself derive from traditions about David's battles. Since Saul also has Samson-like features in his leading Israel against the Ammonites, it has been suggested that tales originally about Saul have been transferred to Samuel. Hannah's song (2.1-10) seems like a general song of thanksgiving pasted in because it seemed appropriate.
- The Fall of the House of Eli. A different set of perspectives seem to have shaped the accounts of the fall of the House of Eli. We have a polemic here against not only a rival shrine to Jerusalem at Shiloh but against a non-Zadokite priesthood. These stories have been reworked to make Samuel the logical successor.
8.1-15.34: Saul and Kingship. We next have a series of traditional stories about Saul, reworked by later writers hostile to the monarchy and/or favorable to David.
- What a King Will Do for You. Like Eli before him, Samuel has (8.1-3) sons unworthy to succeed him. Despite these demonstrations of the problems of hereditary succession, the people feel that they need a king like their neighbors. The Lord interprets this as a rejection of his own Kingship over Israel (8.7-8. Samuel explains to the people what the ways of a king are like (8.11-18), but they are not persuaded. Later, in his farewell address (12.1-17), Samuel reminds them that his ways (in unstated contrast to those of kings) were just, and the people are moved to repent (12.19), but too late.
- Saul Becomes King: There are really three versions of Saul's becoming king. What may be the oldest presents him as very like early "judges," a savior raised up at a time of crisis (10.27-11.15: following his oxen like any one else, Saul is inspired to lead Israel to victory against the Ammonities, delivering the inhabitants of Jabesh, after which he is crowned King at Gilgal. In another episode, now placed earlier in the narrative (10.20-22, Saul is selected by lot, though he hides in the baggage. A third episode is placed even earlier (9.1-10.16), magnifying the role of Samuel by having him secretly anoint Saul even before the device of the lot. This may have begun as a story where young Saul goes out to look for asses and meets a seer who promises him a great future, the kind of folktale found frequently.
- Sins of Saul. The major sins alleged against Saul come down to a failure to recognize that Samuel is still numero uno. In 13 he fails to wait for Samuel to make a sacrifice before battle and is told that his kingdom will therefore not continue, though his son Jonathan goes on to rout the Philistines in the subsequent battle. In 15, he upsets Samuel by failing to utterly destroy the Amalekites when told to and is told again that the kingdom will be given elsewhere; Samuel then hacks up at an altar the King of the Amalekites, whom Saul had spared.
- Saul's Oath. The episode in which Jonathan must be rescued by the people from Saul's oath that any who broke fast would die is presented as an example of his rashness. It seems a folk tale akin to that told of Jephthah in Judges.
15.35-31.13: The Rise of David. Although incorporating details from sources less favorable to David, this account seems mainly concerned to establish him as the legitimate successor to Saul and to explain away awkward features of his early career.
- His Secret Anointing by Samuel. The story of David's secret anointing, like that of Saul before him, implicitly makes the legitimacy of kingship dependant on prophetic selection. Like Saul, David is good-looking, but Samuel is warned by the Lord (15.6) not to be misled by the greater stature of his elder brother; this may come from a tradition critical of Saul, who was taller than normal. The story fits in with the frequent motif of the triumphant youngest son. Jesse is not a prominent man in his tribe--when Saul, the son of a rich man, refers to David as a "son of Jesse" (20.30-31, it is not a compliment.
- David Comes to Court. We have several versions of David's coming on the scene here. In 16.14-23, David is brought to court as a singer, but is already an experienced warrior. In 17.12-18, he is only a boy and is sent to the battlefield with provisions for his brothers, just in time to rise to Goliath's challenge. Saul has to ask his name after the battle (17.58). In 18 David is a successful army commander, whose popular success--"Saul has killed his thousands, // And David his ten thousands"--rouses Saul's suspicion but wins him a royal bride.
- Everybody Loves Him. David's marriage to Michal, which turns sour in 2 Samuel is presented resulting from her love for David (18.20, and she helps him escape from court (19.11-12) when Saul is planning to kill him. Jonathan's love for David is repeatedly stressed.
- David Keeps Sparing Saul's Life. The point here is that David was not really a threat to Saul. Their quarrel is all Saul's fault.
- David Serves the Philistines. Serving as a mercenary captain for the great enemy of Israel is not a usual qualification for kingship. In 27 we are told that although David claimed to be raiding in Judah, during his time at Ziklag he only raided the enemies of Israel. In 29, he is excused from serving in the great battle against Israel by the rather reasonable objections of other Philistine leaders, and in 30 he returns home to lead a revenge raid on the Amalekites.